Birr: Alea

Alea

Birr, Christiane
Contents

1 Definition and context

“Alea” denotes board games in general and, more specifically, all kinds of games of chance (Díaz de Luco 1554, cap. 64, p. 125; Pedraza 1568, lib. 1 cap. 4.32, fol. 85r-v; Salas 1617, dub. 3 no. 1, p. 643). It is mostly used in the latter sense of gambling. The professional gambler or organiser of gambling rounds is referred to as “aleator” (Díaz de Luco 1554, cap. 64, p. 125; López 1555, vol. 7, SP 7.14.6, fol. 48r).
The close connection to chance and unpredictability allows the use of “alea” in the phrase “sub (incerta) alea”, meaning chance, hazard, or happenstance (Soto 1553, pars 2 lib. 7 q. 5 ar. 4, p. 603). In criminal law it is used to discuss the presence or absence of intent (dolus), e.g. in the case of a homicidium casuale (Avendaño 1675, vol. 5, >Indulgentia< no. 8, p. 293).
The topic of gambling is generally treated within 5 contexts: (a) licitness, (b) sinfulness, (c) acquisition of property, (d) prohibition of clerics to gamble, and (e) obligations of civil authorities to curb noxious gambling.
1.1 Word field

1.1 Word field

alea, aleator, dado(s), juego, jugador, jugar, ludus, tahur, taxillus

1.2 Related lemmas

blasfemia, clericus, dominium, homicidium (casuale), scandalum, vitium

2 Alea in the School of Salamanca

2.1 Is gambling forbidden?

Not by natural law (Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 436; Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 47, p. 291). As a means of recreation, gambling is permitted and socially accepted (Salas 1617, dub. 1 no. 3, p. 640; Pedraza 1568, lib. 1 cap. 4.32, fol. 85r-v; Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 2, p. 344; Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 313; Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 436). However, gambling for profit meets with strong disapproval: the professional “aleator” is “odious” (López 1555, vol. 7, SP 7.14.6, fol. 48r).
The ius commune’s position is seen as debatable (Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 437–438). The relevant norms are (see Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 6, p. 346): in civil law, Dig. 11.5.1 >Praetor ait< and Cod. 3.43.1 >Alearum lusus<, both expressing disapproval of gambling. In fact, Soto interprets Cod. 3.43.1 as a prohibition of gambling for lay persons (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 312; similar: Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 437). In canon law, DG dist. 35 c. 1 >Episcopus<, X 3.1.15 >Clerici<, X 5.31.11 >Inter dilectos filios< prohibit clerics from gambling. The civil law takes up the ban in Cod. 1.3.17 Auth. >Interdicimus<.
The Siete Partidas follow this line in SP 1.5.57 and 1.6.34 (gambling prohibition for prelates), SP 7.14.6 (limited legal protection for the “aleator”), SP 7.16.10 (sanctions for cheating), SP 1.20.12 (tithes on winnings), SP 3.16.8 (bad reputation of gamblers), SP 3.11.19–21 (oaths required of Jews, Christians, and Muslims, incl. in gambling disputes). Local legislations prohibit some notorious forms and circumstances of gambling (Salas 1617, dub. 4, p. 645–648; Tercer Concilio Limense, act. 3, cap. 17, p. 268), as does Alfonso X’s Ordenamiento de las Tafurerías (1314, see Macdonald 1995).

2.2 Is gambling a sin?

Permitted gambling for recreational purposes is not a sin (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 3, p. 344; Salas 1617, dub. 2 no. 2,3, p. 641; for clerics: Avendaño 1668, tit. 14, cap. 5, no. 29, p. 189); it can even be seen as an act of virtus, i.e., of temperance (Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 55-57, p. 292). Others view licit recreational gambling as morally dangerous (Díaz de Luco 1554, cap. 64, p. 125; Salas 1617, dub. 1 no. 4, p. 640).
Cheating, seen as equivalent to theft (furtum), turns gambling into a mortal sin (Salas 1617, dub. 7 no. 1, p. 655; Cayetan 1525, “Ludus”, fol. 164r). A game also becomes a sin when it is prohibited by local laws (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 313) or misused for gain by playing for high stakes (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 1, p. 344; Cayetan 1525, “Ludus”, fol. 164r), giving rise to the sins of avarice and greed (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 6, p. 346; see Villalón 1541, cap. 4, fol. 9v). The definition of high stakes depends on each player’s means, because “what is little for one, may be a lot for another” (Pedraza 1568, lib. 1 cap. 4.32, fol. 85v). A gambling pater familias sets a bad example for his family (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 3, p. 345; see Vitoria 1562, pars 2 cap. 2 Mand. 4 par. 1, p. 29). Without aggravating circumstances (scandalum), gambling for gain is regarded as merely a venial sin (Pedraza 1568, lib. 1 cap. 4.32, fol. 85v; Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 1, p. 344; Vitoria 1562, pars 2 cap. 2, Mand. 3 par. 1, p. 25), even if local laws forbid gambling altogether: the latter aim at temporal punishment, not at the eternal consequences of a mortal sin (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 7, p. 346; critical: Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 314; considered “probabilior” by Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 436; Salas 1617, dub. 2 no. 4,5, p. 642 cites other opinions). Also, social reality cannot be denied: the most exalted persons gamble for large sums, and their confessors invariably absolve them without asking them to quit; if gambling were a mortal sin, such leniency would be impossible (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 7, p. 346). Professional gamblers, however, are infamous, like robbers, liars, adulterers and murderers (Mercado 1569, pars 4 cap. 8, fol. 188r-v; see Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 28, p. 288).

2.3 Acquiring property (dominium) through gambling

In civil law, gambling is a contract in which all parties are equally at risk of losing their goods for the opportunity of acquiring the goods of the others (Covarrubias 1571, Rel. in reg. Peccatum, pars 2 sect. 4 art. 1, p. 469); natural law allows these mutually risky contracts (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5. art. 2, p. 313).
With a valid gambling contract, the winner acquires ownership of the goods staked (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5. art. 2, p. 313). According to a 14th-century Castilian law, the loser can demand their restitution within 8 days of the game; after that, the acquisition is final (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5. art. 2, p. 313; see Montalvo 1484, lib. 8 tit. 10 l. 1; different opinion: Salas 1617, dub. 5 no. 2,3, p. 650). Consequently, there is no obligation to pay one’s gambling debts, as one could demand restitution immediately after (Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 438–439).
Without freely given consent the gambling contract is void: whoever seduces an unexperienced player to a game has to restitute the winnings (Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 315; Salas 1617, dub. 25, p. 676–678); the same goes for winnings gained by cheating (Salas 1617, dub. 7 no. 1, p. 655).
Moral theologians tackle the topic in the context of the 7th commandment (furtum; Pedraza 1568, lib. 1 cap. 4, fol. 65r). Unlike medieval authors like Aquinas, Bonaventura, Hostiensis, etc., the Salamancans reject a moral obligation to restitute the winnings (Azor 1618, pars 3 lib. 5 cap. 24, col. 437–438; Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 9, p. 347). As gambling was a point of honour among young men from good families, university students may use 4–5 % of their monthly stipend for gambling (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 9, p. 347; Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q. 5 art. 2, p. 315; Salas 1617, dub. 9 no. 8, p. 663), even if their father had explicitly forbidden it: natural law allows them to use their funds for anything required for an honourable life (Salas 1617, dub. 10, p. 664).

2.4 Gambling clerics

Clerics are forbidden to gamble because of the consequences: scandalum, doubts regarding their honesty (Azpilcueta 1556, cap. 19 no. 8, p. 346; Soto 1553, pars 1 lib. 4 q.5 art.2, p. 313), indecency (Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 3, p. 287), and neglect of pastoral duties (Avendaño 1668, tit. 14, cap. 5, no. 29, p. 189, no. 32, p. 190). Playing dice is considered especially contemptible (Díaz de Luco 1554, cap. 64, p. 125; Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 28, p. 288). Sanctions include excommunicatio (Tercer Concilio Limense, act. 3, cap. 17, p. 268: ipso facto excommunication of clerics who gamble for more than 50 gold pesos; sceptical of fixed sums: Avendaño 1668, tit. 14 cap. 5 sect. 30, p. 190) and the loss of beneficium (Salas 1617, dub. 24 no. 1, p. 674). To gamble habitually is a mortal sin (Salas 1617, dub. 24 no. 2, 675). A cleric who is a public gambler loses his beneficium; opinions are divided as to whether a prior admonition is required (yes: Salas 1617, dub. 24 no. 3, p. 675–676; no: Díaz de Luco 1554, cap. 64, p. 126).
However, some authors allow clerical gambling if the games are honourable, recreational and for small stakes (Avendaño 1668, tit. 14 cap. 5 no. 32, p. 190–191; Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 59, p. 292). Still, clerics are warned that “one should not extend one's hand to everything that is lawful” (Villaroel 1738, pars 1 q. 3 art. 3 no. 62, p. 292).

2.5 Obligation of corregidores, alcaldes et al. to suppress gambling

Gambling is an important concern of the colonial church and state as it leads to blasfemia and crime (Villa-Flores 2007, 239); gamblers in the colonies are considered particularly reckless, “because in the Indies, minds are more magnanimous and money is of less value“ (Avendaño 1668, tit. 14 cap. 5 no. 31, p. 190). Corregidores and alcaldes are accused of setting up games in their homes despite being legally obliged to prevent noxious gambling. In such cases, their confessors can order them to make restitution of what has been lost if the actual winner is not available to restitute his winnings himself (Moreno 1637, regla 3, § 5, fol. 6v).
3 Final remark

3 Final remark

Gambling has rarely been addressed by legal historians. Kéry 2000 gives an overview of medieval canon law, Ceccarelli 2003 adds the Thomists’ perspective, Lucchesi 2005 a canonist’s view. Pino Abad 2011 examines Castilian legislation on games of all kinds, including gambling (see also Wohlhaupter 1931). Villa-Flores 2007 offers an instructive discussion of gambling and blasphemy in colonial New Mexico.
Literature

Literature

Sources

Sources

  • Avendaño, Diego de: Thesaurus Indicus, Vol. 2 (2019 [1668]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0001:vol2>
  • Avendaño, Diego de: Thesaurus Indicus, Vol. 5 (2020 [1675]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0001:vol5>
  • Azor, Juan: Institutionum Moralium, Tomus tertius. Cologne 1618.
  • Azpilcueta, Martin de: Manual de Confessores y Penitentes (2019 [1556]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0002>
  • Covarrubias, Diego de: Relectio in regulam Peccatum, in: Covarrubias y Leyva, Opera Omnia, Vol. 1 (2021 [1573]), in: Die Schule von Salamanca. Eine Digitale Quellensammlung <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0006:vol1>
  • Decretum Gratiani Emendatum et Notationibus Illustratum Vna cum Glossis, Gregorii XIII. Pont. Max. iussu editum. Romae 1582.https://digital.library.ucla.edu/canonlaw/table_of_contents#vol1
  • Díaz de Luco, Juan Bernardo: Practica criminalis canonica (2021-09-29 [1554]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0041>
  • Krüger, Paul/Mommsen, Theodor: Corpus Iuris Civilis. Editio Stereotypa Quinta. Volumen Primum: Institutiones, Digesta. Berlin 1879. https://archive.org/details/corpusjuriscivil01krueuoft/page/n5/mode/2up
  • Krüger, Paul: Corpus Iuris Civilis. Editio Stereotypa Quinta. Volumen Secundum. Codex Iustinianus. Berlin 1892. https://archive.org/details/corpusiuriscivil02krueuoft/page/n5/mode/2up
  • Liber Extra: Decretales D. Gregorii Papae IX, suae integritati vna cum glossis restitutae. Romae 1582. https://digital.library.ucla.edu/canonlaw/table_of_contents#vol2
  • Macdonald, Robert A. (Ed.): Libro de las Tahurerías. A Special Code of Law, Concerning Gambling, Drawn Up by Maestro Roldán at the Command of Alfonso X of Castile. Madison 1995.
  • Mercado, Tomás de: Tratos y Contratos (2019 [1569]), in: Die Schule von Salamanca. Eine Digitale Quellensammlung <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0007>
  • Díaz de Montalvo, Alonso: Ordenanzas reales de Castilla o Libro de las leyes. Huete 1484.
  • Moreno, Gerónimo: Reglas Ciertas, Y Precisamente Necessarias Para Ivezes, Y Ministros De Ivsticia de las Indias, y para sus Confessores (2022 [1637]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0076>
  • Ordenamiento de las Tafurerías (1314), in: Opúsculos Legales del Rey Don Alfonso El Sabio, publicados por la Real Academia de la Historia. Vol. 2. Madrid 1836.
  • Pedraza, Juan de: Summa de casos de consciencia (2021 [1568]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0083>
  • Salas, Juan de: Tractatus de Ludo, in: ders., Commentarii in Secundam secundae D. Thomae de contractibus, Siue Tractatus Quinque. De Emptione, & Venditione. De Vsuris. De Censibus. De Cambiis. De Ludo. Lyon 1617. pp. 639–685.
  • Soto, Domingo de: De Iustitia et Iure (2020 [1553]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0011>
  • Tercer Concilio Limense (1583–1591). Edición Bilingüe de los Decretos, ed. by Luis Martínez Ferrer, Lima 2014.
  • Vacca, Antonio: Expositiones locorum obscuriorum et Paratitulorum in Pandectas. (2020 [1554]), in: Die Schule von Salamanca. Eine Digitale Quellensammlung <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0103>
  • Villalón, Diego de: Provechoso tratado de cambios y contrataciones de mercaderes y reprovación de usura (2020 [1541]), in: Die Schule von Salamanca. Eine Digitale Quellensammlung <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0113>
  • Villaroel, Gaspar de: Govierno Eclesiastico-pacifico, y union de los dos cuchillos pontificio, y regio. Vol. 1. Madrid 1738.
  • Vio (Cayetan), Thomas de: Summa caietana de peccatis et noui testament ientacula. Rome 1525.
  • Vitoria, Francisco de: Confessionario (2018 [1562]), in: The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources <https://id.salamanca.school/texts/W0015>

Research Literature

  • Carpenter, Dwayne E.: Fickle Fortune: Gambling in Medieval Spain, in: Studies in Philology 85 (1988), 267–278.
  • Ceccarelli, Giovanni: Il Gioco e il Peccato. Economia e rischio nel Tardo Medioevo. Bologna 2003.
  • Hallebeek, Jan: On the origin of the constitution Alearum lusus (C. 3,43,1) and its insertion into the Codex Justinianus, in: Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis, 81 (2013), 129–143. [https://doi.org/10.1163/15718190-1305A0007]
  • Kéry, Lotte: Aleas fuge! – Hostiensis und das Glücksspiel, in: Richard H. Helmholz/Paul Mikat/Jörg Müller/Michael Stolleis (Eds.), Grundlagen des Rechts. Festschrift für Peter Landau zum 65. Geburtstag. Paderborn-München-Wien-Zürich 2000. pp. 491–522.
  • Lucchesi, Marzia: Ludus est crimen? Diritto, gioco, cultura umanistica nell’opera di Stefano Costa, canonista pavese del Quattrocento. Milan 2005.
  • Villa-Flores, Javier: On Divine Persecution: Blasphemy and Gambling, in: Susan Schroeder/Stafford Poole (Eds.), Religion in New Spain. Alburquerque 2007. pp. 238–262.
  • Pino Abad, Miguel: El Delito de Juegos Prohibidos. Análisis histórico-jurídico. Madrid 2011.
  • Wohlhaupter, Eugen: Zur Rechtsgeschichte des Spiels in Spanien, in: Spanische Forschungen der Görres-Gesellschaft 1 (1931), 55–128.